THE AMUQ VALLEY REGIONAL PROJECTS

Anatolica 2000 article on Tell Kurdu 1999 Excavations continued: 

    CONTENTS:

 

Anatolica 2000 continued: 

DOMESTIC EQUIPMENT (C. Edens and K. Aslihan Yener)

The equipment and other impedimenta of daily life at Tell Kurdu presents little sign of change through time, and most of the equipment can readily be paralleled in technology and form with materials from other Chalcolithic sites across the Near East . Accordingly, the following discussion focuses for the most part on describing the equipment without special chronological attention or search for parallels. The discussion considers artifacts only from good contexts (i.e. excludes soil overburdens, disturbed soils, etc.) unless an object merits special mention.

Metal

With the exception of the flat ax found on the surface of the site in the burial area, small fragments of copper were unearthed in the 1998 season as well (Yener et al. in press). Tiny fragments of metal, as well as a copper ore were found in 1999 which suggests that metal was also a part of the craft production at the site. Although not yet analyzed, the ore from Halaf/Ubaid transition in Tr. 12 seems to be malachite and would presumably have been transported from sources in the Kisecik area of the Amanus mountains nearby. A disc-shaped bead perhaps of malachite was found in Tr 11 and another fragment of copper stems from Tr 14. The shape of the bead is consonant with the multitudes of flat, perforated disks in a variety of different materials (see below). Ground iron ore was found inside one of the groundstone mortars in the Tr 11 pottery kiln workshop. This ground material was presumably used to paint geometric designs on Ubaid-related ceramics.

Bone tools

The most common form is a pointed instrument made on a split and polished long bone shaft, with one condyle left intact as the handle. The working point often is made by fairly blunt beveling on three or four sides, forming a very robust, thick point (Fig. 18:12 ). The point is normally centered on the long axis of the shaft, but occasionally is skewed to one side (Fig. 18:11 ). Most intact examples of this tool are 6-7 cm long, but some are as much as 12 cm long. A few pointed tools also have a hole drilled through the shaft near the condyle (Fig. 18: 10 ). In a basic variant, the working end is ground to make a more elongated tapering point, more circular in cross-section (Fig. 18:13 ). The pointed tools represent a basic technology in wide-spread use in prehistory, and is the commonest bone tool found at virtually all other Chalcolithic sites of the Near East . The tool is often identified as an awl, although the variation of point angles and size suggests that the tools supported several distinct activities.

Other types of worked bone appear less frequently. The tip of a horn core was ground to a very rounded and blunted shape, possibly a pressure flaking tool (from Tr 12:3). Polished strips of long bone shaft from which cancellous bone was entirely removed appear in Tr. 14; the fragmentary preservation of these pieces leaves their original form and function uncertain. Of equally uncertain function is a shaped and polished section of long bone shaft through which a hole was drilled; fragments of rib with a drilled hole also appear. These pieces may be needles, shuttles, or similar equipment. Whorls, Discs and Recycled Sherds

Whorls are mostly made of reused sherds, on which the scars of preliminary shaping by percussion are sometimes still visible under the subsequent grinding (see below for chipped sherd tools proper). The manufacture of whorls varies in the degree of modification of the base sherd. In a few cases, the sherd is simply chipped into a round shape and the perforation drilled; if the perforation is drilled first (as is likely, since rates of failure by splitting the sherd must be highest for this step of production), then these whorls may in fact be unfinished. Most whorls were ground around the edge to form a more uniform circle, the faces of the sherd being left unmodified; many of these whorls are arced in profile. Some whorls are also ground on their faces to make a flat disc with parallel faces (Fig. 18: 1-2). Regardless of their production technique, the whorls are most commonly around 5 cm across (but ranging from 2 to 7 cm).

Other pieces are shaped and perforated before firing. These pieces vary considerably in shape -- lenticular disc (Fig. 18: 3), flattened sphere, piriform and spherical (Fig. 18: 5-7), and barrel-shaped examples appear in the 1999 sample -- and they tend to be smaller than the whorls made on sherds (many are less than 3 cm in diameter). Such objects are often classified as spindle whorls, but in some cases the aperture is far too small for this function (e.g. Fig. 18: 11 , 18: 3), and the group probably represents multiple functions (e.g. whorl, net weight, loom weight).

Pierced stone discs, generally serpentine, occur less frequently. The discs appear in three size ranges. The smallest discs are 1.5-2.0 cm, and medium-sized discs around 5 cm, in diameter; these pieces are similar to the sherd whorls in shape, and made with varying degrees of care. The perforation of one thick disc from the Tr 12:11 trash pit was unfinished. Several pierced stone discs are very carefully fashioned whorls with flat base and low domed top, usually with an incised concentric groove near the edge; a hemispherical version also appears. These discs probably had functions similar to those of the clay discs. The largest pierced stone discs are much heavier (on the order of 4-5 kg), and must have been used for other purposes (e.g. digging stick weight).

Recycled sherds appear in several other guises. Some pieces are formally similar to spindle whorls, but with the perforation in an excentric position. Given the functional desirability of radial symmetry in spindle whorls (see Keith 1998), these pieces should not be grouped with the whorls, although their actual uses remain undetermined. A few sherds, mainly from Tr 12/16, were shaped into a disc but not perforated (Fig. 18: 8). One of these was shaped by flaking and then pecking, the others by grinding; in one case a pair of small holes were drilled through the disc at opposite sides (Fig. 18: 4). Another sherd was ground to a subrectangular shape with rounded corners, and then given deep notches on opposite sides, probably to function as a net weight (Fig. 18: 9). Tr 12/16 also presented a number of sherds with grinding facets on breaks (probable use-wear) and in one case bifacial retouch to formed an arced tool edge.

Sling balls

The biconical baked clay objects commonly identified as sling balls or pellets were present in all parts of the site. Made of a dense gray to brown clay, these objects typically are 3-5 cm long and 2-3 cm across at the widest point (Fig.16: 16). The biconical examples were also unearthed earlier in a variety of materials from stone to baked clay examples (Yener et al in press Fig 27:2). The same form occasionally appears in stone from the 1999 season as well (e.g. in Tr 15:16 , Tr 14: 36 ).

Stone vessels

Figure 19 Stone vessels are a minor but persistent element of the assemblages. Bowls, both heavy and fine, are the most common vessel form (Fig. 19: 9, 11). Usually given simple rims, sometimes more elaborate forms appear (e.g. a beaded rim; Fig.19: 12); vertical lug handles with horizontal perforation are sometimes present. In the 1999 sample, decoration is limited to one or multiple incised grooves beneath the rim (Fig.19: 13). Other forms occurred in insecure contexts; among these is a flat dish with vertical sides (similar to a common lid form), and a squat pot with a sharply everted rim. Recycling of stone vessel sherds is evident in a shallow asymmetrical bowl fashioned from a fragment of an older container, the low disc base of which appears on the side of the new vessel (Fig.19: 10). Almost all the stone vessels were made from serpentine, with one very heavy basalt bowl also appearing. The vessels are all small -- where determinable, rim diameters are 7-12 cm regardless of vessel form -- but vessel walls can be a centimeter thick.

Celts

Celts are another ubiquitous Chalcolithic artifact type. The examples found in 1999 vary somewhat in size and shape. They generally are 3.5-4.0 cm long (as short as 3.0 cm and as long as 5+ cm) but vary more in width from less than 1 cm to over 4 cm. However, the narrower celts often are reworked larger broken celts (e.g. Fig. 19:1, 4). In shape the celts may be roughly square or rectangular with nearly parallel lateral margins (e.g. Fig. 19: 3-4), or tapered toward the butt (Fig. 19:1-2, 5), and the butt itself sometimes is heavily battered. The working edge may be symmetrically or asymmetrically beveled (Braidwood's distinction between axes and adzes; Braidwood and Braidwood 1960: 41-42); use-wear includes both impact flake scars and heavy rounding, but wear often is not pronounced. Serpentine is the most commonly used material for the celts, with basalt, possibly nephrite, and other stones not yet identified also occurring.

Other stone artifacts

The heavy grinding and pounding equipment were not systematically examined this year. Casual examination indicates that most are relatively small slabs of vesicular basalt, used as querns; some of the hand stones are cubic in shape. Well-formed mortars and pestles of the same material are less common. Basalt is available from a belt of outcropping flows that borders the eastern side of the Amuq plain and extends through the Gaziantep area and northern Syria (see Lease and Laurent 1998). A rectangular slab of serpentine(?) presents a pecked circular hollow on one face, perhaps a nutting stone. The three polished and pierced "mace heads" found in 1999 came from insecure contexts; made of serpentine, haematite and basalt (?), two were piriform and the other cubic in shape (Fig. 19: 6-7). An oblong subrectangular limestone cobble from Tr 14 bears a drilled hole in each of its two faces (Fig. 19: 8); the size of these holes (.84 cm in diameter) suggest that this object is not an unfinished hammer or similar object, but may be the handle for a compound tool (e.g. a bow drill, used in producing beads).

Ornaments

The 1999 excavations recovered over 200 beads of various shapes and materials. Beads were especially frequent in Tr 14 where bead production seems to have occurred (see Özbal, above, for evidence of production); a cluster of 39 beads occurred near the base of the subsoil in that trench. The great majority of beads are tubular or disc in shape, with other types each represented by only a few example. The tubular beads are fashioned from shell (ground and drilled columella, Dentalium), baked clay, bone and stone (mostly serpentine and marble); except for Dentalium (e.g. Fig. 17: 20 ), the beads are fairly short, and the perforations even on stone may be very narrow (10-15 mm across; see Fig. 17:12 , 15). The disc beads are usually made of stone (mostly obsidian and serpentine, along with marble and agate), with examples of shell and clay also occurring. These beads often are extremely small (30-50 mm across, 10-15 mm thick) even when made of stone. The obsidian disc beads are usually fashioned from flakes that are chipped into rough shape then ground, the perforation achieved by drilling a shallow depression on one face and then punching (pressure or indirect percussion) through the remaining thickness (see Chevalier et al. 1982 for a description of this technique); the resulting bead is usually markedly asymmetrical in cross-section (one side of the disc being thicker than other) and often irregular in shape (flat rectangular or trapezoidal beads of serpentine also occur at variations of the disc); the perforation sometimes takes up most of one face of the disc (Fig. 17: 10 ). The clay disc beads may be made from recycled sherds or shaped and perforated before firing. Other bead shapes that appear in small numbers include: segmented tubular (unidentified stone; Fig. 17: 13); barrel, once with longitudinal facets (serpentine, calcite, marble); spherical (baked clay); faceted biconical (agate); shoe last-shaped (narrow rectangle with a high plano-convex longitudinal cross-section, perforated laterally, in marble); flat cordiform with collar each end around the longitudinal perforation (serpentine; Fig. 17: 19); and whole marine shells (mostly conids) perforated through the apex. A serpentine `double-ax' bead or pendant resembles examples that Braidwood reports from Amuq A contexts, but in this case perforated through center of the piece rather than through its longitudinal axis (Fig. 17: 18 ). Although from insecure contexts, two elongated rectangular serpentine beads, square in cross-section, deserve mention: one example from Tr 13 presents very shallowly incised figurative decoration. Tr 13 provided two additional beads with figured decoration, again from insecure contexts -- a shell tubular bead with schematically incised animal and trees; and an oval bead with lenticular cross section, one face depicting a quadruped, the other a double column of wavy lines. A few beads bear a double perforation, among them an oval obsidian disc and a flat obsidian rhomboid with perforations in opposite corners, both from Tr 13; a flat oval with a wide longitudinal groove along one face and perforated at each end from Tr 12 (Fig. 17: 14 ), and an elongated flat crescent of shell (?) perforated at each end, from Tr 15 (Fig. 17: 9). Although fewer in number, the pendants are equally varied in form. The most common form is a stemmed tear-drop of serpentine or quartz, one face of which often bears incised geometric decoration (cross-hatched lozenges, oblique hatching; Fig. 17: 21 -22). Similar to Mallowan's type 1 pendant at Arpachiyah (Mallowan and Rose 1935: 92), these pendants occur in both Amuq C and Amuq E contexts. Another noteworthy serpentine pendant, from Tr 14, is zoomorphic, a dog-like shape with flat sides and bottom, perforated through the side and bearing incised cross-hatching on the bottom (Fig. 17: 17 ). Another zoomorphic pendant is a surface find from Tr 12: a stylized animal head in the form of a `Y', with incised grooves on edges and around the `horns', and perforated through the stem of the `Y' (Fig 17: 16 ). A large (7.1 x 3.2 cm, 1.5 cm thick) slightly curved rectangle of unidentified stone from Tr 14 is perforated one end and ornamented with a deeply incised grid pattern on one face. A simple elongated thin foliate pendant of serpentine appeared in Tr 13, as did a perforated rock crystal pebble. A large cordiform pendant with plano-convex cross-section from Tr 18 was made from a split and carefully ground marble cobble, and bears a compound right-angle perforation drilled from one end and the flat face; this neat stringing technique also occurs in Amuq E contexts (Braidwood and Braidwood 1960 Fig. 166: 21).

Several artifacts from insecure contexts may be mentioned here as well. A serpentine labret appeared in Tr 13; this piece presents a nearly flat bottom and domed top with a waisted body. Fragments of small serpentine rings (cf. finger or toe rings; estimated diameters 1.2-2.0 cm) appeared in Tr. 11 and 16. Several flat and polished, carefully formed discs of obsidian, about 4 cm across, and 3-4 mm thick, occurred in the subsoil of Tr 14; one disc carries a very small perforation at the edge next to a break, probably a repair hole. Several marine gastropods are ground open on one side, either across the aperture or through the whorls.

Most baked clay figurines are representations of quadrupeds; the species of animal usually is unidentifiable although some appear to be sheep (Fig. 17: 7), others dogs (Fig. 17: 6). A smaller number of figurines are anthropomorphic. The head of a figure with coffee-bean eyes and elongated conical head appeared in Tr 11 (Fig. 17: 1); similar figurine fragments have been recovered from the same part of the south mound (Yener et al. in press), and on the basis of current evidence this style is associated only with Amuq E assemblages at Kurdu. Another distinctive figurine form appeared only in Tr 14 (and Tr 13 in an insecure context). These are busts with a flat base, a slight waist, sometimes indications of nipples, and stubby protrusions for arms. The examples found so far are missing the head (Fig. 17: 2-3), although a smaller variant of this style has a conical head (Fig. 17: 5). Braidwood found the same style of figurine in Amuq E contexts (Braidwood and Braidwood 1960: 204, Fig. 160: 12-14), and similar figurines appear as far away as Susiana . A roughly shaped and fairly flat figurine from Tr 12 (in an unreliable context) may be an earlier variation on the same theme: rounded bottom and waisted, head and indications of arms missing, with an incised rectangle containing punctate impressions across much of the lower portion of one side. And several roughly modeled lumps of clay with a curved stalk on top (fig-shaped), all found in Tr 14, may also belong with this group. A more representational figurine, from poor contexts in Tr 13, represents a seated figure with legs outstretched, but arms and head missing (Fig. 17: 4). This piece bears red painted bands and stripes around the torso. Analogous figurines appear at sites like Arpachiyah (but not sitting; Mallowan and Rose 1935: 81, Fig. 45: 1-5) and Gawra (Tobler 1950 Fig. 153.4). Another striking figurine, a surface find, is a clay cone with appliqué pellets representing breasts and nose, the eyes indicated by incisions. A stone animal head with large and strongly spiraled horns, found in one of the bulldozer cut sections, is another distinctive figurine (Fig. 17: 8); fragments of the same style occurred in Tr 13 and other examples have appeared as surface finds in previous seasons. Apparently a recurrent form, these figurine cannot yet be put in chronological context at Kurdu. Other fragments of baked clay -- cylinders, hooked cones, tabs -- may be parts of figurines, or of other artifact types like tokens, mullers, spoon handles and the like.

CHIPPED STONE C. Edens

Time constraints permitted study of only a small sample (n=520) of chipped stone from the 1999 excavations. Accordingly, the study had the two general objectives of initial description and a comparison of selected assemblages for diachronic change. For the latter objective, the study focused on materials from Tr 12/16 (late Amuq C and D) and Tr 14 (early Amuq E). The following presentation will first describe the common features of the Kurdu chipped stone (Amuq C-E inclusively), and then will address the differences between Amuq C from Amuq E assemblages.

Raw Materials

Flints of various textures and colors provide the commonest materials. The most frequent material is a medium-textured pale gray to light brown fossiliferous flint (abbreviated here G/BM); the range of colors may appear in the same piece. A darker gray-brown version of this material (DGM) also figures in small amounts. Other medium-textured flints are less common, with white to cream (MW), brown (MB), and pale gray to gray-brown mottled with dark gray (MG/B) appearing. Fine-grained flints are equally varied: dark gray (FDG), gray with occasional gray-brown mottling (FG), light brown (FB), white or cream (FW), reddish brown with cream mottling (FRB), translucent brown with occasional red-brown mottling (FTB), and translucent gray-brown with occasional cream mottling (FTG). Coarse-textured material is limited to a granular fossiliferous pale brown to light gray flint. Burnt flint is usually unassignable to any of these categories, and is separately listed. Obsidian (OBS) rounds out the raw materials commonly present in the study sample. The variations in texture and color gives the impression of great heterogeneity and multiple sources of raw material. Several factors limit this impression. Many of the variations are in fact superficial, with color and occasionally also texture variations appearing in the same piece. Furthermore, some materials most commonly find technologically specific uses, notably G/BM and OBS as blades. Accordingly, the following discussion will make basic distinctions only among fine flint, medium flint, G/BM, and OBS. Obsidian obviously is exotic in the Amuq context; a pilot chemical characterization study of ten pieces, under the auspices of M.-L. Cauvin, will begin to identify the sources of the Kurdu obsidian. The fine and medium flints seem to have derived from fairly small pebbles (struck pebbles and cores on pebbles in the study sample are no longer than 5 cm, and flakes of these materials generally do not exceed 5 cm in greatest dimension). These pebbles may be present within the Pleistocene gravels of the Afrin delta upon which Kurdu sits; alternatively, they may be available in the fans at the base of the Amanus Mountains . MG/B appears as somewhat larger pebbles or small cobbles, and the blades made of this material commonly approach 10 cm in length. These cobbles presumably have the same sources as the smaller pebbles. Excepting the obsidian, in other words, the raw materials are likely to be available either in the Kurdu neighborhood (e.g. in erosional cuts of an active Afrin drainage) or at the edges of the Amanus.

Technology

These raw materials were used in different ways (Table 5). Blades make up a strong component of the Kurdu chipped stone industry, comprising half the total sample and up to four-fifths of individual assemblages. In the aggregate, 79% of the blades appear in G/BM or OBS. By contrast, these two raw materials comprise only 29% and 7% respectively of the flakes, flake cores and shatter, while the various fine flints make up fully half of these pieces. Put in another way, 72% of G/BM and 77% of OBS pieces are blades, while 87% of the fine flint pieces are flakes, shatter, chunks and flake cores. These differences suggest the presence of several different reduction strategies conditional on size and form of raw material, intended functions of tools, and possibly differential access to raw materials and the social locations of production (e.g. restricted access to exchange networks, specialized production). Flake cores are relatively common whereas blade cores are absent from the studied samples. Similarly, cortical flakes and related debris are common (nearly a third of the Tr 14 sample) but cortical blades are rare (3-4% of the aggregate in each phase). These observations may reflect off-site production of blades, but the presence of several crested blades suggests on-site production in a restricted number of places, or a degree of specialization.

Blade trajectory

The flint blades at Kurdu fall within a fairly narrow range of morphological and metrical variation, indicating use of a single technique. Blades present subparallel edges and dorsal ridges, often distally tapering from the widest point at the proximal end (Figure 20: 1). The striking platform remnants are plain (a few faceted platforms also occur), with grinding on their dorsal aspect, and are often very restricted with wider rounded shoulders. Platforms are angled fairly sharply with respect to the dorsal face: on G/BM blades, the average platform angle 76o±7o (n=38; range 90o-60o). Bulbs are generally low and diffuse, usually lack a bulbar scar, and lipping on the ventral aspect of the platform remnant is common. While the great majority blades were struck from single platform cores, several fine flint blades from Tr 12/16 came from bipolar cores. Blades with cortex are infrequent, making up 3% of the aggregate total and varying little in frequency among the different raw materials. The blades differ somewhat in their metric attributes according to raw material. G/BM provides the only sample with more than several complete blades; these are 8.27 ± 1.20 cm long (n=8; range 6.41-9.89 cm). The G/BM blades are significantly wider than the fine and other medium-textured flints, but the flint blades in general have a similar thickness (Table 6). These metric patterns probably reflect different sizes of raw materials and corresponding geometry of cores. Obsidian blades also present plain striking platforms that often are reduced to a linear zone of grinding; bulbs are generally smaller but more prominent than on the flint blades. The obsidian blades are significantly narrower and thinner than the flint blades. These characteristics suggest that the obsidian blades were produced with a pressure technique, the flint blades with a soft hammer or indirect percussion technique.

The blades in the study sample present a limited range of modification, notably several combinations of backing and truncation that exhibit strong patterning by raw material (Table 7; Fig. 20: 2-6). In the studied sample, fine flint and OBS blades are not backed or truncated, while medium flint blades occasionally, and G/BM blades somewhat more frequently, receive this modification. Gloss appears in low proportions on G/BM and other medium flints (on 11% of these blades in the aggregate), while fine flint and OBS blades are not glossed. Gloss and modification occur basically independent of each other: only slightly more than half the backed and/or truncated pieces are also glossed, while slightly less than half the glossed pieces are not backed or truncated (the differences between assemblages in modification rates are considered below).

Other types of retouch also appear among the blades: (1) marginal retouch along one or both edges (three cases, all G/BM), in one example of which the retouched edges were convergent and one edge was also glossed; (2) scalar semi-invasive, sometimes bifacial, retouch along one or both edges in two cases, both fine flint; (3) abrupt normal retouch along both edges of an FDG blade; (4) notches, once on a glossed MW blade notched after its initial use, and once on a truncated G/BM blade; and (5) a scraper on the distal end of a truncated G/BM blade; a dihedral burin on a blade was also found on the surface of the north mound. In addition to retouch, macroscopically visible use damage appears on nearly half the glossed blades, and on a smaller proportion of non-glossed blades (16% in Tr 12/16 and 5% in Tr 14, including cases where damage occurred after gloss formation). Damage is occasionally coarse on the unglossed blades (among them a backed blade).

Flake trajectory

In general, the flakes exhibit the relatively large platforms and prominent large bulbs of hard hammer percussion. Flakes seldom exceed 4 cm in maximum dimension: for the total sample, 24% of the medium flint flakes and 19% of the G/BM flakes exceed this figure, but only 6% of the fine flint flakes (including two core-flakes) do so; a third of these larger flakes are cortical. The same small size is evident in the flake cores. Cores take several forms, among them:

(1) Small cobbles from which one or several flakes are removed, often without platform preparation. Of the four recorded cases, three are fine flint and the other is G/BM. The cobbles are not more than 4 cm in maximum dimension.

(2) Single platform, single release face cores. Of the two cases, one is made on a MWB cobble so that the core height is only 3.5 cm, while the other is a more reduced FRG block capable of yielding flakes less than 2 cm long.

(3) Core-flakes, in which a relatively large flake is used as a core to remove smaller flakes (see Miller 1985 for this type of core). The three examples here are all fine flint flakes used to make flakes less than 2.5 cm long. In addition, the original form of three core fragments cannot be determined; of these, a G/BM piece is the largest (5 cm wide). The frequent use of cobbles account for the relatively high proportion of cortical flakes and debris (17% in the Tr 14 sample, 12% in the Tr 12/16 sample; note that the cores make up a comparable proportion of each sample).

A limited number of flakes are retouched. Two are treated like blades, being backed or truncated and backed, and another two bear semi-abrupt retouch along one edge; one flake is notched. In addition, one small flake was struck laterally across the front of a scraper, removing its working edge. A chopper made on a cobble of non-siliceous gray stone may also be mentioned here. Use-related macroscopic edge damage is limited to two flakes, while one chunk has a battered edge.

As previously noted, different proportions of raw materials distinguish the flake component from the blades in the two assemblages. The prominence of fine flints among the flakes and flake cores, the small size of the flakes, and the selection as cores of cobbles and flakes incapable of yielding blades of the size found at Kurdu, all point to a separate trajectory for producing flakes. Moreover, at least in the samples in hand, the persistent if low frequency appearance of flake cores contrasts with the absence of blade cores even in contexts with strong representation of blades, suggesting that flake production was more widely performed, perhaps as an expedient industry, than was blade production.

Comparison of Tr 12/16 and Tr 14 Assemblages

As already stated, the technological character of the lithic industry remained stable from Amuq C through Amuq E times. Even so, some differences distinguish the late Amuq C and D assemblages of Tr 12/16 from the early Amuq E sample from Tr 14. Raw materials provides a salient source of variability: in the Tr 12/16 sample, obsidian and G/BM each contributes about 30% and fine flints about 20% of the total assemblage, whereas in the Tr 14 sample G/BM alone makes up nearly half the assemblage, fine flints also increase to nearly 30% while obsidian drops to barely more than 5% of the assemblage (Table 5). The blade component accounts for much of these shifts, as the proportion of G/BM among the blades in the Tr 14 assemblage is more than twice that among the Tr 12/16 blades, while the proportion of obsidian blades drops from

over 40% to under 10%. The proportion of obsidian in the Tr 12/16 sample is extraordinarily high (other late Halaf sites with unbiased recovery of chipped stone report far lower relative frequencies of obsidian, e.g. 3% at Kazane; Bernbeck et al. 1999: 122). If further excavation proves the high proportion of obsidian in Tr 12/16 to be representative of the Amuq C lithic industry in general, then Kurdu must have been a nodal point on interregional distribution systems of later 6th millennium, but lost this position by the early 5th millennium BC.

A second contrast concerns modification of blades: the proportion of backed and/or truncated blades drops from 31% in the Tr 12/16 sample to 7% in the Tr 14 sample. This change potentially has chronological significance, as Braidwood also reports that these modifications decrease through time. However, the rates of gloss also declines sharply (from 21% to 8%), and although gloss and modification occur independently of one other, they probably form parts of a wider behavioral complex related to plant processing. In this event, the contrast between the two samples is functional rather than chronological. The high number and proportion of blades in the exterior trash deposit locus 19 of Tr 14 suggests that specialized refuse was dumped here, while the remaining materials from Tr 14 reflect more ordinary household activity with a marked emphasis on flakes and flake production (Table 8).

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE TELL KURDU FAUNAL REMAINS 1999 Michelle A. Loyet ( University of Illinois , at Urbana-Champaign)

The faunal material analyzed during the 1999 season came from the upper deposits of Tr 11/15, 12/16, 13 and 14, excavated during the first three weeks of excavation. During the first weeks of the 1999 season relatively few deposits were screened, and the faunal material mostly collected by hand. This recovery technique creates a bias against microfauna, and particularly fish, in the assemblages reported here. This recovery bias must be kept in mind in the evaluation of the assemblages. The in-field analysis was very preliminary. Animal remains were sorted into major taxonomic groups (sheep/goat, suid, cattle) and only body part information was recorded. Side and portion of the bone were not recorded, nor were measurements taken, in anticipation of a more complete analysis at a later date. This type of recording system was adopted in order to learn as much about the bones as possible in the limited time available. Identification of the bones were done using anatomical texts, as there was no access to comparative material. Identification of the bones were made more difficult as much of the sample was heavily concreted with carbonates. The second stage of analysis, with access to comparative material, will increase the identifiable portion of the sample.

The Faunal Sample

The Kurdu assemblages (Table 9) are dominated by domestic animals, sheep and goat, cattle, and pig, although these are represented in different quantities in the different trenches. Tr 11/15 produced little material in comparison to the other trenches, and also shows a smaller variety of remains, lacking the felid, bird and turtle remains present in the other assemblages. The latter characteristic may simply be the bias of small sample size. More generally, low screening rates probably biased all the samples against smaller animals like rabbit, rodent, bird, fish, and turtle. Other than carbonate concretions, the preservation of the bone is quite good, with little fragmentation, and identification of large portions of the samples is possible. Since all fragments were counted and weighed, it is possible to determine a rough estimate of fragmentation through the use of the average size of the fragments present in each unit (after Zeder 1991). This is illustrated in Table 10. The large fragment size makes it possible for a greater percentage of the assemblage to be identified.

Interpretation

While the residents of Tell Kurdu relied heavily on domestic animals, they also commonly incorporated wild species in their diet (Table 9). The probable recovery bias inherent to the present sample leaves uncertain the role of aquatic fauna, assessment of which must await analysis of the screened samples. The data modestly different proportions of domesticate species across the samples, with sheep/goat appearing in lower proportions and pig in higher proportions in Tr 11/15 compared to Tr 14 and Tr 12/16. This contrast may have chronological significance, as it parallels a similar contrast found in the preliminary 1998 data (see Yener et al. in press). Small sample sizes make firm conclusions premature, and this possibility will be examined in future analysis. More generally, the patterns of animal exploitation at Kurdu is different from that found in later assemblages, in which sheep and goat become the dominant domesticate, with cattle and pig playing a much more minor role. This same pattern can be seen in Zeder's (1995, 1997) analysis of faunal assemblages from the Khabur. Her study of 6th through 2nd millennium assemblages shows an eclectic mix of wild and domestic fauna, with an increasing reliance on sheep and goat appearing in the third millennium. The pre-urban assemblages at Kurdu show the same patterning, an eclectic mix of both wild and domestic fauna, with no reliance on one particular domesticate.

While the preliminary analysis of the Kurdu assemblages has produced interesting results, there remains a great potential for the collection of further information in the faunal remains. More in-depth analysis can provide further information regarding the species present at Kurdu, the environmental conditions, and the human interaction with that environment.

ARCHAEOBOTANICAL REMAINS FROM THE 1998 AND 1999 SEASONS AT TELL KURDU Heidi L. Ekstrom (St. Mary's College)

The Amuq Valley of southwestern Turkey lies within the Mediterranean woodland zone, which is primarily characterized by oak forest (Zohary 1973). Today the plain supports extensive fields of cotton, wheat, maize and other crops, and Tell Kurdu is seasonally covered in cotton and wheat. Palaeobotanical reporting from the Amuq remains sparse, and for prehistoric periods is confined to Hans Helbaek's study of plant impressions in Amuq A pottery from Tell Judaidah and Dhahab; Helbaek (1960) reports emmer wheat (Tritcum dicoccum), hulled barley (Hordeum sp.), oat grass (Avena sp.) and rye grass (Lolium cf. Gaudini).

One goal of the renewed Oriental Institute project in the Amuq is an exploration of prehistoric agricultural practices at Tell Kurdu. The examination and analysis of macro-remains is fundamental in determining these practices and in exploring the interaction between people and the environment of the Amuq. The excavation strategy of wide horizontal exposures permits examination of different types of contemporaneous contexts that more adequately represents the various uses of plants within the site. The excavations to date have exposed architecture and several deposits of dense burnt grain that seem to represent remains of crop storage facilities (Yener and Wilkinson 1997, Yener et al. in press). Other contexts contain more sparse but sometimes more varied plant remains. This report provides a preliminary overview of the macroremains recovered during the 1996, 1998 and 1999, floated and examined during the latter two seasons.

Methodology

A Siraf-type flotation machine was constructed for processing soil samples. Flotation for both seasons took place on site for the first week of processing, then moved to the dig house because of complications with the on-site pump. As a result of low water supply, some of the smaller samples were bucket floated. However, samples with secure context and yielding great volumes of material were kept until machine floatation could be resumed. Whenever possible, sample volumes were at least 40 liters. However, volume was greatly dependent upon the size of the deposit being excavated. Samples were poured into the machine at 5 liter intervals and the light fraction was collected through a series of sieves, then transferred into finely woven cotton and set in the shade to dry.

Samples were collected and processed from eight trenches -- Tr 1, 2, 4 (a and b), 11, 12, 14, 15 and 16. The samples were collected from middens, hearths, pits, burned architecture and ashy lenses, with additional samples collected from floor surfaces, ceramic vessels and ovens. The 11 samples collected during the 1996 season and two samples from the regional survey program (sites AS 181E and AS 180A.5) were processed during the 1998 season. A total of 115 samples were processed for the three seasons of excavation. Overall, the density of samples processed during the 1999 season was significantly lower than the samples from the 1998 season.

The samples from the middle and south end of the mound undoubtedly yielded the greatest volume of charred botanical remains. Some of the macroremain samples exceed 1000 ml in volume. Because of the very labor-intensive process of sorting botanical material, only a very small percentage of the larger deposits were sorted. At least one sample from each of the aforementioned trenches was examined, with the exception of Tr 16 which yielded little to no material. In all, 14 samples were fully or partially sorted with priority given to the south mound, where the context of deposits varied the most. A list of macroremains identified these 14 samples is shown in Table 11.

Crop plants

Hordeum sp. (barley) appears in most of the samples from the middle and south end of the mound. The areas with the largest quantity of Hordeum include Tr 4b (loc 30 and 58), Tr 4a (loc 14 and 21), Tr 2 (loc 55), and the 1996 sounding (loc N3 and S4). These samples are almost exclusively made up of whole grains and cereal fragments and lack threshing debris like rachis or spikelet forks. The presence of these `clean' deposits is consistent with the interpretation of these areas being used as storage facilities. The deposits from the older north mound are poorly preserved, and although cereal fragments are present, most are extremely vessiculated rendering positive identification virtually impossible.

Triticum sp. (wheat) appears in all the Amuq D and E samples with the exception of Tr 14. Although the definite species of wheat is uncertain, it is believed to be monococcum. The samples with high ratios of wheat to barley also include spikelet forks, which are absent from deposits with high ratios of barley to wheat. This could be a result of tight fitting glumes around the grain (a characteristic of glume wheats), which do not easily separate during the threshing process.

Cicer arietinum (chickpea) is present only in Tr 4 and is believed to be associated with another storage facility. The burned architecture of this area reinforces this analysis. Like the Hordeum deposits from this trench, Cicer is extremely dense. However, the exact ratios for this crop plant have not yet been determined. Other identified legumes include Lens culinaris and Pisum sp. The overall quantity of these seeds is low but evidence for their presence (via fragments) is good, particularly in Tr 11/15.

Other Taxa

A variety of other species have been identified (Table 11). The assemblage is quite broad, considering only a small amount of samples have been examined. Although there are limited references specifically dealing with the Amuq, the taxa present at Tell Kurdu is consistent with sites throughout the Mediterranean and the Near East . All of the wild plant seeds are charred, with the exception of one Umbelliferae type seed found in Tr 12 and a large quantity of Echium in Tr 2. Generally, uncharred seeds are thought to be modern. A general Graminae category is shown in Table 11 and includes a number of different wild grass seeds that need further examination for positive identification.

Wood charcoal

Small pieces of wood charcoal were present in all samples with the exception of Tr 4 and one of the 1996 samples, i.e. contexts where grain deposits are extremely rich. Tr 1 yielded the largest pieces of charcoal and contained the greatest volume. Tr 14 also contained large amounts of wood, but the fragments were significantly smaller than in Tr 1. Further analysis of wood fragments from these deposits may aid in determining available materials for the inhabitants of Tell Kurdu, as well as overall vegetation conditions in the Amuq valley.

Overview

It is difficult to compare the material recovered at Tell Kurdu to other sites in the Amuq, because of the lack of published reports. However, all the identified species are commonly found on archaeological sites throughout the Near East and Mediterranean regions. Thus far, the site has proved to be extremely rich in archaeobotanical material, most notably barley and wheat. The quantity of cereal, the absence of threshing debris, and the scarcity of other species found several samples from Tr 4 and the 1996 sounding provide clear evidence for at least two storage facilities, one seemingly Amuq D in date (north mound) and the other Amuq E (south mound).

Nevertheless, it would be premature to make any gross assumptions about the economic importance of these crop plants to the inhabitants of Tell Kurdu. Minor contributors to the assemblage include wild grasses and weed plants which may grow in a variety of primary or secondary habitats. The greatest variety of seeds for this analysis came from floor deposits, particularly from Tr 1. At present, the south mound generally reflects greater volumes of wheat than barley, whereas the north mound, not yet adequately sampled, contains more barley. The samples that have been sorted for the north mound reflect poor preservation resulting often in unidentifiable material. Future sampling will encompass collecting more material from this area. It is too early in the analysis process to determine any definite trends of agricultural production of the site. Future research will include an attempt to define what, if any, shifts in economy or environment has occurred.

DISCUSSION (Chris Edens)

The 1999 excavations add considerable information about the fabric of occupation and range of activities at Kurdu for the Amuq C and E occupations. The introduction of microartifact analysis adds a new and extremely important source of information; systematic study of pottery, chipped stone, and other artifact categories begun this season are already bearing fruit. Full analysis and integration of information inevitably lags behind basic stratigraphic comprehension, and the following sketch is an interim statement of current conclusions.

The Tr 14 house and associated trash deposits represent early Amuq E occupation at the edge of the platforming area on the mound summit. Although the step trench did not reach platforming during the 1999 season, platforming is present in Tr 1/6/9 to the northwest and seemingly also in the bulldozer cut south of Tr 14. Judging by the bedded trash in the bulldozer section the Tr 14 building may rest just above platforming, but this relationship must be established in future excavation. Similarly, the wider context of the building, and especially its stratigraphic and functional relationship with the large building on the mound summit (Tr 1/6/9 ) remains undetermined for the moment.

Activities in the Tr 14 building changed during its long use-life. The stratigraphic position of the ovens in the north room shows that baking or other uses of these installations began well after the house was constructed. The trash deposits east of the building also reveal changing activities. Preliminary density counts for the various categories of artifacts in these deposits show several trends through time, the most noticeable being a sharp drop in the density of sealings and tags and a general decrease in the figurine and chipped stone densities through time (Table 12). These trends suggest a shift in administrative functions away from the house (and other sources of the trash) during its existence. The trash deposits also contrast with the contents of the house, the latter presenting much lower densities of sealings, beads, chipped stone, figurines, and sling balls. Ground stone appears in greater densities in the house, while other domestic artifacts like spindle whorls, loom weights, bone tools, and celts occur in very low densities in both the house and trash. These contrasts reflect both activities and differential discard/loss patterns.

The results of the microartifact study pertain to the final phases of activity, when the use of at least one oven continued, and bead-making, shell-working and flint knapping also occurred in the north room. These results are somewhat discordant with the evidence of the trash deposits, which indicate decreasing densities of chipped stone and beads through time. These activities were likely relatively incidental pursuits, as equipment for shell and stone working (e.g. chipped stone drills) does not appear in the trash or room deposits, and the densities of chipped stone are too low for a workshop. In any event, both the trash and the room imply the presence of some special activities like bead-making and the general absence of some domestic routines like weaving. Whether these observations apply to the entire building or just to the eastern rooms of the building remains undecided. The rhythmic bedding of trash deposits, both those excavated in 1999 and the underlying two meters of trash, reflects changing depositional patterns. Prior to excavation annual cycles of activity seemed a possible cause of this bedding, for example an alternation winter and summer activities. But the stratigraphic relationships between the trash and the building precludes such a straightforward account, since the building endured far longer than several years. Ovens of the type found in the north room are a possible source of material for the ash beds, but do not easily account for the thick deposition in a cyclical rhythm. Although the causes of cyclical bedding in the trash deposit thus remain uncertain, the periodicity of deposition must reflect a secular rhythm of labor, the investigation of which will reveal much about the Amuq E settlement at Kurdu.

The Amuq E architecture on the east slope of the south mound also reflects changing activities within the excavated area. The phase 1 kiln complex, where multiple firing installations allowed potters to turn out several distinct wares in the same facility, provides an opening to study of specialized production, and economic (and social?) complexity in the Amuq E community. Only small numbers of non-ceramic artifacts occurred in and around this complex. Although the microartifact analysis showed the interior surface to be `cleaner' than the exterior spaces, the former context provided three-quarters of the 12 phase 1 small finds, among them artifacts like beads, a pendant, and a figurine that have no obvious function in a pottery. Other artifacts from the interior surface, like a stamp seal, several tokens, and grinding stone fragments, may be related to the functions of a pottery.

The underlying phase 2 architecture implies a far more residential use of the same area. Although artifact frequencies are significantly lower than found in Tr 14 (and artifact density information is not yet available), the relatively common presence of bone tools and grinding equipment in the small assemblage (7 of the 11 registered artifacts), and the appearance of a spindle whorl are indicative of more varied domestic routines than are evident in Tr 14. The underlying phases of architecture revealed in Tr 2 and the 1996 sounding again present a different architectural character, perhaps combines storage with domestic activities, this lying above a partially exposed round structure. The relatively dense burnt grain occur in contexts of Tr 11/15 phase 2 and below also indicate a shift in activity, as the Tr 11/15 phase 1 and 2 samples contain far more wheat than barley accompanied by threshing debris, while the 1996 and Tr 2:55 samples (stratigraphically Tr. 2 phase 2 and pre-phase 3 respectively; see Yener et al. in press) contain much more barley than wheat and lack threshing debris. The east slope area seems to have maintained a fairly open architectural fabric throughout, in character more like Yarim tepe or Gawra than Degirmentepe. Since this area lay at or near the edge of the settlement, its architectural character should not be assumed for occupation on the summit of the south mound, a portion of the tell now removed by the bulldozer.

The late Amuq C architectural complex in Tr 12/16 contrasts strongly with the more slightly built domestic architecture found in Tr 7, some 30 m to the east. This complex contrasts even more strongly with the roughly contemporaneous architecture at places like Domuztepe, Turlu, Kazane, Çavi Tarlasi (and e.g. Arpachiyah) where the more common Halaf pattern prevails of free-standing tholoi and other buildings in a more or less clustered arrangement. The nature of the complex remains uncertain, the building(s) extending in all directions beyond the limits of excavation. In addition to the massive size of many of its walls, this complex is remarkable for the amount of open space it contains -- rooms account for no more than 17% of the exposed area, the remainder being walls and enclosed open space. Functionally speaking, this proportion is roughly similar to that found at contemporary sites, the difference being restricted access and the conversion of public into private space. The activities performed inside the building complex seem extremely varied, evident in the fixed installations (basins, hearths) of the courtyard, and the high variability of the relatively small artifact assemblage. Ignoring stratigraphic distinctions, the latter includes a relative abundance of twelve bone tools, eleven spindle whorls, five celts, twenty-four grinding stones, and four hammer stones; a net weight, two stone rings, several chipped or abraded sherd tools, four stone vessel fragments, four sling balls, eleven beads, a macehead, two figurines, four tokens, and three sealing clay fragments also appear. Although again density figures are not yet available, these artifacts form a far richer assemblage than found in any of the Tr 11/15 phases or in Tr 14, and probably rivals the latter in artifact density. The richness and density of its artifact assemblage, together with the absence of durable production debris other than chipped stone debitage and a single piece of worked serpentine among both macro- and microartifacts, corroborate the impression of generalize domestic activities within the building.

Several more general conclusions may also be make. The excavations thus far fully confirm Braidwood's earlier inference of shifting settlement location on the mound. The exposures of Amuq C-D architecture on the north mound, Amuq D on the northern skirt of the south mound, and Amuq E only on the south mound imply a sharp contraction of settlement area at the Amuq D-E transition. Excavation has not yet determined the extent of Amuq C and D occupation on the south mound, and in any event stratigraphic connections across the full extent of the mound are unrealistic -- the size of settlement at any point in time must always be somewhat uncertain. Two factors will limit this uncertainty. A pottery sequence from the step trench, fixed with physical stratigraphy and radiocarbon dates, will help resolve the current Amuq phasing into more tightly defined subphases. And the combined patterns of prehistoric occupation and recent mound disturbance make directly accessible from the surface different periods of occupation. This feature of the mound allows relatively inexpensive testing of settlement shifts, and wide exposures of contemporaneous architecture for all three periods, that can be placed in finer-grained relative order with the ceramic chronology from the step trench. Future excavation at Tell Kurdu will build upon these possibilities.